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Risk factors
By Mayo Clinic staffRisk factors associated with dysmenorrhea include:
- Age younger than 20
- Early onset of puberty (age 11 or younger)
- Heavy bleeding during periods (menorrhagia)
- Never having delivered a baby
References
- Lentz GM. Primary and secondary dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder: Etiology, diagnosis and management. In: Katz VL, et al. Comprehensive Gynecology. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Mosby Elsevier; 2007. http://www.mdconsult.com/das/book/body/123257502-3/810739333/1524/245.html#4-u1.0-B978-0-323-02951-3..50039-X--cesec1_1158. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Banikarim C. Primary dysmenorrhea in adolescents. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Dysmenorrhea. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. http://www.acog.org/publications/patient_education/bp046.cfm. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Smith RP, et al. Pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and diagnosis of primary dysmenorrhea in adult women. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Endometriosis and adenomyosis. In: Kumar V, et al. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Elsevier Saunders; 2005. http://www.mdconsult.com/das/book/body/123257502-5/810836639/1249/260.html#4-u1.0-B0-7216-0187-1..50026-2--cesec79_3198. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Peipert JF, et al. Complications of pelvic inflammatory disease. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 2, 2009.
- Ultrasound imaging of the pelvis. Radiological Society of North America. http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?PG=pelvus. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- CT: Abdomen and pelvis. Radiological Society of North America. http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?PG=abdominct. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- MRI of the body (chest, abdomen, pelvis). Radiological Society of North America. http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?PG=bodymr. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Hysteroscopy. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. http://www.acog.org/publications/patient_education/bp084.cfm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Laparoscopy. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. http://www.acog.org/publications/patient_education/bp061.cfm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Smith RP, et al. Treatment of primary dysmenorrhea in adult women. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Dysmenorrhea. In: Kliegman RM, et al. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 18th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2007. http://www.mdconsult.com/book/player/book.do?method=display&type=bookPage&decorator=header&eid=4-u1.0-B978-1-4160-2450-7..50117-1--cesec17&uniq=123506366&isbn=978-1-4160-2450-7&sid=811308126#lpState=open&lpTab=contentsTab&content=4-u1.0-B978-1-4160-2450-7..50117-1--cesec17%3Btype%3DbookPage%3Bisbn%3D978-1-4160-2450-7. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Mind-body medicine: An overview. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/whatiscam/mind-body/mindbody.htm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- An introduction to acupuncture. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/introduction.htm. Accessed March 3, 2009.
- Nasir LS. Dysmenorrhea. In: Rakel RE, et al. Conn's Current Therapy. 60th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2008. http://www.mdconsult.com/das/book/body/123506366-5/811342293/1621/527.html#4-u1.0-B978-1-4160-4435-2..50267-3--cesec6_4271. Accessed March 3, 2009.
